LOW-POROSITY AND LOW-OXIDATION 316L STAINLESS-STEEL COATINGS DURING HVOF SPRAYING: NUMERICAL SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENT
Keywords:
316L stainless-steel coating; HVOF; Numerical simulation; RSM; Oxidation behavior
Abstract
316L stainless-steel coatings with low porosity and low oxidation were successfully produced via High-Velocity Oxygen-Fuel (HVOF) spraying of 10–50 µm feedstock powder, combining numerical simulation and experimental validation. A gas-solid coupled multiphase flow model incorporating oxidation kinetics, employing Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), was developed to simulate the HVOF spraying process. The study delved into the effects of oxygen/fuel (O/F) ratio, reactant flow rate, and spraying distance on the gas flow field parameters (pressure, temperature, and velocity) and particle in-flight behaviors (temperature, velocity, and oxidation status). Furthermore, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was utilized to quantitatively analyze the sensitivity of these parameters on the oxide layer’s thickness. The optimum spraying parameters (OSPs) predicted by the simulation results were determined: 2.7 for the O/F ratio, 0.025 kg/s for the reactant flow rate, and 350 mm for the spraying distance. Subsequently, HVOF spraying experiments based on the OSP yielded 316L stainless-steel coatings with a porosity of 0.18 %, an oxide content of 0.52 w/%, and excellent mechanical properties. This work provides valuable insights for the production of 316L stainless-steel coatings with minimal porosity and low oxidation through HVOF spraying.
References
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[37] P. Pichler, B. J. Simonds, J. W. Sowards, G. Pottlacher, Measurements of thermophysical properties of solid and liquid NIST SRM 316L stainless steel, J. Mater. Sci., 55 (2020) 9, 4081–4093, doi:10.1007/s10853-019-04261-6
[38] S. J. S. Chelladurai, K. Murugan, A. P. Ray, M. Upadhyaya, V. Narasimharaj, S. J. M. T. P. Gnanasekaran, Optimization of process parameters using response surface methodology: A review, Mater. Today: Proc., 37 (2021) 1301–1304, doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2020.06.466
[2] S. Choudhary, R. G. Kelly, N. Birbilis, On the origin of passive film breakdown and metastable pitting for stainless steel 316L, Corros. Sci., 230 (2024) 111911, doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2024.111911
[3] J. Selvaraj, K. Balakrishnan, K. Raja, I. Charit, V. R. Subramanian, A comparative review on cold sprayed cermet coatings and their applications in high temperature corrosion, oxidation and wear resistance, Results Surf. Interfaces, 20 (2025) 100589, doi:10.1016/j.rsurfi.2025.100589
[4] X. Zhang, Q. Wang, X. Jing, Y. Xi, H. Zeng, L. Dong, Y. Lin, Microstructure evolution and hydrogen embrittlement mechanism of different zones at 316 L SS/316L SS laser-repaired coating, Corros. Sci., 245 (2025) 112673, doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2024.112673
[5] Y. Wu, Z. Wang, J. Chen, Y. Ma, Y. Yan, L. Qiao, Effect of frictional frequency on the subsurface evolution of 316L stainless steel in tribocorrosion and its influence on the synergistic effect between corrosion and wear, Tribol. Int., 178 (2023) 108026, doi:10.1016/j.triboint.2022.108026
[6] R. Wei, R. Deng, H. Li, J. Liang, C. Zhao, C. Ouyang, Q. Bai, Comparative analysis of microstructure and corrosion resistance in laser-clad austenitic and martensitic stainless-steel coatings, Vacuum, 229 (2024) 113581, doi:10.1016/j.vacuum.2024.113581
[7] Y. Fan, Y. Zhao, Y. Liu, S. Xie, C. Ge, X. Han, H. Chen, Parameter optimization and mechanical properties of laser cladding of 316L stainless steel powder on G20Mn5QT steel, Coatings, 13 (2023) 3, 481, doi:10.3390/coatings13030481
[8] H. Zhang, W. Cheng, Y. Yin, Y. Sun, X. Li, Microstructure and strengthening mechanism of a 316 stainless steel coating prepared by high-speed laser cladding on an aluminum alloy plate, Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng., 25 (2024) 1, 15, doi:10.1007/s43452-024-01082-6
[9] M. Villa, S. Dosta, J. M. Guilemany, Optimization of 316L stainless steel coatings on light alloys using Cold Gas Spray, Surf. Coat. Technol., 235 (2013) 220–225, doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2013.07.036
[10] R. F. Vaz, A. Silvello, J. Sanchez, V. Albaladejo, I. G. Cano, The influence of the powder characteristics on 316L stainless steel coatings sprayed by cold gas spray, Coatings, 11 (2021) 2, 168, doi:10.3390/coatings11020168
[11] T. Lindner, M. Löbel, M. Grimm, J. Fiebig, Cold gas spraying of solution-hardened 316L grade stainless steel powder, Metals, 12 (2021) 1, 30, doi:10.3390/met12010030
[12] E. Celik, I. Ozdemir, E. Avci, Y. Tsunekawa, Corrosion behaviour of plasma sprayed coatings, Surf. Coat. Technol., 193 (2005) 1-3, 297–302, doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2004.08.143
[13] S. Adachi, N. Ueda, Surface hardness improvement of plasma-sprayed AISI 316L stainless steel coating by low-temperature plasma carburizing, Adv. Powder Technol., 24 (2013) 5, 818–823, doi:10.1016/j.apt.2012.12.011
[14] M. Taghian, M. Heydarian, S. Torkian, M. P. Dabir, A. Bahrami, S. H. Mousavi Anijdan, N. Park, High-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) spray coating of inconel, colmonoy, and aluminum on AISI 316L stainless steel: a comparative investigation of the microstructure and corrosion resistance of coatings, Coatings, 13 (2023) 1, 204, doi:10.3390/coatings13010204
[15] L. Zhao, E. Lugscheider, Influence of the spraying processes on the properties of 316L stainless steel coatings, Surf. Coat. Technol., 162 (2003) 1, 6–10, doi:10.1016/s0257-8972(02)00560-1
[16] Y. Qin, Y. Wu, J. Zhang, S. Hong, W. Guo, L. Chen, H. Liu, Optimization of the HOVF spray parameters by Taguchi method for high corrosion-resistant Fe-based coatings, J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 24 (2015) 7, 2637–2644, doi:10.1007/s11665-015-1536-8
[17] Z. Zeng, N. Sakoda, T. Tajiri, S. Kuroda, Structure and corrosion behavior of 316L stainless steel coatings formed by HVAF spraying with and without sealing, Surf. Coat. Technol., 203 (2008) 3-4, 284–290, doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2008.09.011
[18] T. C. Totemeier, Effect of high-velocity oxygen-fuel thermal spraying on the physical and mechanical properties of type 316 stainless steel, J. Therm. Spray Technol., 14 (2005) 3, 369–372, doi:10.1361/105996305X59440
[19] Y. Qin, Y. Wu, J. Zhang, S. Hong, W. Guo, L. Chen, H. Liu, Optimization of the HOVF spray parameters by Taguchi method for high corrosion-resistant Fe-based coatings, J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 24 (2015) 7, 2637–2644, doi:10.1007/s11665-015-1536-8
[20] S. Kuroda, T. Fukushima, M. Sasaki, T. Kodama, Microstructure and corrosion resistance of HVOF sprayed 316L stainless steel and Hastelloy C coatings, Mater. Trans., 43 (2002) 12, 3177–3183, doi:10.2320/matertrans.43.3177
[21] K. Dobler, H. Kreye, R. Schwetzke, Oxidation of stainless steel in the high velocity oxy-fuel process, J. Therm. Spray Technol., 9 (2000) 3, 407–413, doi:10.1361/105996300770349872
[22] S. Kamnis, S. Gu, Numerical modelling of propane combustion in a high velocity oxygen–fuel thermal spray gun, Chem. Eng. Process., 45 (2006) 4, 246–253, doi:10.1016/j.cep.2005.06.011
[23] S. Kamnis, S. Gu, T. J. Lu, C. Chen, Computational simulation of thermally sprayed WC–Co powder, Comput. Mater. Sci., 43 (2008) 4, 1172–1182, doi:10.1016/j.commatsci.2008.03.015
[24] J. Pan, S. Hu, L. Yang, K. Ding, B. Ma, Numerical analysis of flame and particle behavior in an HVOF thermal spray process, Mater. Des., 96 (2016) 370–376, doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2016.02.008
[25] C. Li, X. Gao, D. Zhang, H. Gao, X. Han, B. Zhang, Numerical investigation on the flame characteristics and particle behaviors in a HVOF spray process using kerosene as fuel, J. Therm. Spray Technol., 30 (2021) 3, 725–738, doi:10.1007/s11666-021-01165-3
[26] J. Yu, X. Liu, Y. Yu, Z. Li, S. Xu, H. Li, et al., Effect of HVOF spraying process on particle behavior of Fe-based amorphous alloy coatings, J. Therm. Spray Technol., 31 (2022) 8, 2448–2462, doi:10.1007/s11666-022-01476-z
[27] X. Zhao, C. Li, S. Li, X. Han, H. Jiang, Mechanism study on the influence of combustion models and spray gun geometric parameters on high-velocity oxygen-fuel (HVOF) thermal spraying, J. Manuf. Process., 98 (2023) 173–185, doi:10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.05.022
[28] N. Zeoli, S. Gu, S. Kamnis, Numerical simulation of in-flight particle oxidation during thermal spraying, Comput. Chem. Eng., 32 (2008) 7, 1661–1668, doi:10.1016/j.compchemeng.2007.08.008
[29] N. C. Wu, F. Yang, W. H. Sun, G. Yang, Y. Liang, S. D. Zhang, J. Q. Wang, In-flight oxidation of Fe-based amorphous particle during HVAF spraying: numerical simulation and experiment, J. Therm. Spray Technol., 32 (2023) 7, 2187–2201, doi:10.1007/s11666-023-01623-0
[30] S. A. B. Diop, A. Nastic, A. Dolatabadi, R. Attarzadeh, C. Moreau, In-Flight Particle Oxidation Evolution in HVAF: A Numerical Study, Coatings, 15 (2025) 2, 215, doi:10.3390/coatings15020215
[31] M. Li, D. Shi, P. D. Christofides, Modeling and control of HVOF thermal spray processing of WC–Co coatings, Powder Technol., 156 (2005) 2-3, 177–194, doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2005.04.011
[32] Y. C. Ma, F. Q. Bai, Q. Chang, J. M. Yi, K. Jiao, Q. Du, An experimental study on the atomization characteristics of impinging jets of power law fluid, J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 217 (2015) 49–57, doi:10.1016/j.jnnfm.2015.01.001
[33] M. N. Khan, T. Shamim, Effect of operating parameters on a dual-stage high velocity oxygen fuel thermal spray system, J. Therm. Spray Technol., 23 (2014) 6, 910–918, doi:10.1007/s11666-014-0114-1
[34] V. V. Sobolev, J. M. Guilemany, Dynamic processes during high velocity oxyfuel spraying, Int. Mater. Rev., 41 (1996) 1, 13–32, doi:10.1179/imr.1996.41.1.13
[35] A. Dolatabadi, J. Mostaghimi, V. Pershin, Effect of a cylindrical shroud on particle conditions in high velocity oxy-fuel spray process, Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater., 3 (2002) 3, 245–255, doi:10.1016/s1468-6996(02)00023-2
[36] P. Bansal, P. H. Shipway, S. B. Leen, Residual stresses in high-velocity oxy-fuel thermally sprayed coatings–Modelling the effect of particle velocity and temperature during the spraying process, Acta Mater., 55 (2007) 15, 5089–5101, doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2007.05.031
[37] P. Pichler, B. J. Simonds, J. W. Sowards, G. Pottlacher, Measurements of thermophysical properties of solid and liquid NIST SRM 316L stainless steel, J. Mater. Sci., 55 (2020) 9, 4081–4093, doi:10.1007/s10853-019-04261-6
[38] S. J. S. Chelladurai, K. Murugan, A. P. Ray, M. Upadhyaya, V. Narasimharaj, S. J. M. T. P. Gnanasekaran, Optimization of process parameters using response surface methodology: A review, Mater. Today: Proc., 37 (2021) 1301–1304, doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2020.06.466
Published
2026-07-23
How to Cite
1.
Wu N, Wang R, Wang G, Cao J. LOW-POROSITY AND LOW-OXIDATION 316L STAINLESS-STEEL COATINGS DURING HVOF SPRAYING: NUMERICAL SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENT. MatTech [Internet]. 2026Jul.23 [cited 2026Oct.11];60(4):623–633. Available from: https://mater-tehnol.si/index.php/MatTech/article/view/1702
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