EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON BALLISTIC PERFORMANCE OF FUNCTIONALLY GRADED COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH TiB2
Keywords:
functionally graded layer (FGL), ballistic simulation, depth of penetration (DOP) test
Abstract
This study investigates the fabrication of pure Al and Al–4%Cu ingots containing functionally graded layers (FGL) reinforced with in-situ synthesized TiB2 particles by gravitational casting, and the experimental evaluation of their ballistic performance. Ingots with varying FGL thicknesses were produced using the sedimentation technique, and their physical properties (microstructure, phase analysis, density, reinforcement volume fraction, elasticity) as well as ballistic performance were assessed through depth of penetration (DOP) tests. Al-based ingots with (5, 10 and 15) mm FGL, Al–Cu ingots with 10 mm FGL, and non-FGL Al–Cu ingots were successfully fabricated. Results demonstrate that ballistic efficiency increases proportionally with FGL thickness, with optimum performance observed in the 10–15 mm range, while the differential efficiency factor (DEF) decreases beyond 15 mm. Furthermore, an addition of 4 % Cu to the matrix alloy enhanced ballistic performance by 37.5 % compared to the 10 mm FGL sample without Cu, underscoring the critical role of the Cu addition in improving ballistic protection.
References
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[19] S. G. Savio and V. Madhu, “Effect of Tile Thickness and Projectile Velocity on the Ballistic Performance of Boron Carbide Against 12.7 mm AP,” Procedia Eng, vol. 173, pp. 286–292, Jan. 2017, doi: 10.1016/J.PROENG.2016.12.015.
[20] Z. Rozenberg and Y. Yeshurun, “The relation between ballastic efficiency and compressive strength of ceramic tiles,” Int J Impact Eng, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 357–362, Jan. 1988, doi: 10.1016/0734-743X(88)90035-8.
[2] S. Kumar, M. Chakraborty, V. Subramanya Sarma, and B. S. Murty, “Tensile and wear behaviour of in situ Al-7Si/TiB2 particulate composites,” Wear, vol. 265, no. 1–2, pp. 134–142, Jun. 2008, doi: 10.1016/J.WEAR.2007.09.007.
[3] Y. Shen, X. Li, T. Hong, J. Geng, and H. Wang, “Effects of TiB2 particles on microstructure and mechanical properties of an in-situ TiB2-Al-Cu-Li matrix composite,” Materials Science and Engineering: A, vol. 655, pp. 265–268, Feb. 2016, doi: 10.1016/J.MSEA.2015.12.104.
[4] W. Wang, Z. Fu, H. Wang, and R. Yuan, “Influence of hot pressing sintering temperature and time on microstructure and mechanical properties of TiB2 ceramics,” J Eur Ceram Soc, vol. 22, no. 7, pp. 1045–1049, Jul. 2002, doi: 10.1016/S0955-2219(01)00424-1.
[5] A. Pettersson, P. Magnusson, P. Lundberg, and M. Nygren, “Titanium–titanium diboride composites as part of a gradient armour material,” Int J Impact Eng, vol. 32, no. 1–4, pp. 387–399, Dec. 2005, doi: 10.1016/J.IJIMPENG.2005.04.003.
[6] E. Balcı, B. Sarıkan, M. Übeyli, N. Camuşcu, and R. O. Yıldırım, “On the ballistic performance of the AA7075 based functionally graded material with boron carbide reinforcement,” Kovove Materialy, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 257–262, Jan. 2013, doi: 10.4149/KM_2013_4_257.
[7] M. Übeyli et al., “The ballistic performance of SiC-AA7075 functionally graded composite produced by powder metallurgy,” Mater Des, vol. 56, pp. 31–36, 2014, doi: 10.1016/J.MATDES.2013.10.092.
[8] J. J. Sobczak, L. Drenchev, and R. Asthana, “Nomograms for rapid assessment of particle sedimentation behaviour in liquid phase processing of particle reinforced metal composites,” International Journal of Cast Metals Research, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 122–128, Apr. 2013, doi: 10.1179/1743133612Y.0000000045.
[9] B. Previtali, D. Pocci, and C. Taccardo, “Application of traditional investment casting process to aluminium matrix composites,” Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf, vol. 39, no. 10, pp. 1606–1617, Oct. 2008, doi: 10.1016/J.COMPOSITESA.2008.07.001.
[10] E. Kocaman, H. Aydın, K. Yiğit, F. Çalışkan, and Ö. Savaş, “Corrosion Behaviour of Al/(TiB2 + -Al3Ti)-Based Functional Grade Metal Matrix Composite by Sedimentation Method,” Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals 2024 77:8, vol. 77, no. 8, pp. 2153–2161, Apr. 2024, doi: 10.1007/S12666-024-03301-3.
[11] U. Akyol, E. Kocaman, and Ö. Savaş, “SEDİMANTASYON YÖNTEMİ İLE FONKSİYONEL DERECELENDİRİLMİŞ TİB2/AL-CU-Sİ KOMPOZİTLERİN ÜRETİLE BİLİRLİĞİNİN ARAŞTIRILMASI”, Accessed: Jun. 13, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://avesis.yildiz.edu.tr/yayin/4633d03d-a74a-4815-99ec-3ff98839801d/sedimantasyon-yontemi-ile-fonksiyonel-derecelendirilmis-tib2-al-cu-si-kompozitlerin-uretile-bilirliginin-arastirilmasi
[12] E. T. Y. Yildiz, Ö. Savaş, M. S. Başer, and E. Kocaman, “Abrasive wear behavior of functionally graded Al3Ti reinforced aluminum matrix composite,” SpringerETY Yildiz, Ö Savaş, MS Başer, E KocamanChina Foundry, 2025•Springer, vol. 22, no. 1, Jan. 2024, doi: 10.1007/S41230-024-3147-1.
[13] Z. Lv, J. Sha, G. Lin, J. Wang, Y. Guo, and S. Dong, “Mechanical and thermal expansion behavior of hybrid aluminum matrix composites reinforced with SiC particles and short carbon fibers,” J Alloys Compd, vol. 947, Jun. 2023, doi: 10.1016/J.JALLCOM.2023.169550.
[14] T. V. Christy, N. Murugan, and S. Kumar, “A Comparative Study on the Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of Al 6061 Alloy and the MMC Al 6061/TiB<sub>2</sub>/12<sub>p</sub>,” Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering, vol. 09, no. 01, pp. 57–65, 2010, doi: 10.4236/JMMCE.2010.91005.
[15] Q. Song, X. Du, W. Dong, H. Liang, H. Shi, and J. Liu, “STUDY ON THE DYNAMIC COMPRESSION PROPERTIES OF A 0.5 % GRAPHENE/6061 ALUMINUM MATRIX COMPOSITE,” Materials and Technology, vol. 59, no. 5, pp. 675-682–675–682, Sep. 2025, doi: 10.17222/MIT.2025.1428.
[16] A. Gavel, S. Poria, and P. Sahoo, “Design of experiments analysis of abrasive friction behavior of Al-TiB2 composites,” Mater Today Proc, vol. 19, pp. 218–222, 2019, doi: 10.1016/J.MATPR.2019.06.705.
[17] Ö. Savaş, “Fabrication and characterization of TiB2-reinforced functionally graded aluminum matrix material,” Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, vol. 72, no. 10, pp. 1147–1152, Nov. 2020, doi: 10.1108/ILT-12-2019-0538/.
[18] S. Sadanandan and J. G. Hetherington, “Characterisation of ceramic/steel and ceramic/aluminium armours subjected to oblique impact,” Int J Impact Eng, vol. 19, no. 9–10, pp. 811–819, Oct. 1997, doi: 10.1016/S0734-743X(97)00019-5.
[19] S. G. Savio and V. Madhu, “Effect of Tile Thickness and Projectile Velocity on the Ballistic Performance of Boron Carbide Against 12.7 mm AP,” Procedia Eng, vol. 173, pp. 286–292, Jan. 2017, doi: 10.1016/J.PROENG.2016.12.015.
[20] Z. Rozenberg and Y. Yeshurun, “The relation between ballastic efficiency and compressive strength of ceramic tiles,” Int J Impact Eng, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 357–362, Jan. 1988, doi: 10.1016/0734-743X(88)90035-8.
Published
2026-07-23
How to Cite
1.
Başer MS, Demirok Ömer F, Savaş Ömer. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON BALLISTIC PERFORMANCE OF FUNCTIONALLY GRADED COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH TiB2. MatTech [Internet]. 2026Jul.23 [cited 2026Oct.11];60(4):613–621. Available from: https://mater-tehnol.si/index.php/MatTech/article/view/1645
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