CHARACTERIZATION STUDY OF THE 19th-CENTURY INDO-SARACENIC-BULBOUS DOME AT THE MADRAS HIGH COURT, TAMILNADU
Keywords:
19th Century Heritage, Masonry domes, lime mortars, chemical analysis, characterization methods
Abstract
The mortars of the Indo-Saracenic-styled Madras High Court Domes, constructed in 1888–1892 in Madras, Tamil Nadu, were analyzed to investigate their composition, durability, and production technologies. Multiple analytical techniques were employed, including XRD, FT-IR, X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis (TG-DTA), and Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), supported by acid loss and color indexing tests. The binder-to-aggregate ratios of bed-raw mortar (1:2.99), bedding mortar (1:2.94), and external plaster (1:2.74) through acid-digestion analysis. XRD confirmed the dominant calcite peaks (d-spacing 0.303 nm) with secondary silicate and aluminate phases, while FT-IR spectra exhibited carbonate absorption bands at 1420 cm–1 and 875 cm–1, along with organic signatures corresponding to polysaccharides and amide groups. TG-DTA revealed a major weight loss of 40–45% between 600–780 °C, consistent with CaCO3 decomposition. SEM images showed crystalline hydrated phases of C–S–H and portlandite, whereas EDX analysis indicated oxygen-rich matrices with Ca contents ranging from 18–25 w/% and Si contents of 10–12 w/%. Acid-loss tests recorded dissolution rates of 7–9%, highlighting the binder’s durability. Color indices quantified three distinct pigment layers: hematite-rich red, lead-based yellow, and carbonaceous black. Together, these results demonstrate the use of homogenous mixes and advanced lime-based technologies with organic additives, underscoring the material sophistication of 19th-Century construction practices. This comprehensive, quantitatively supported investigation provides critical insights into historic mortar technologies and serves as a scientific basis for conservation strategies of Indo-Saracenic heritage monuments.
References
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[33] IS: 383, " 'Specification for coarse and fine aggreagtes from natural sources for concrete', BIS, New Delhi," 1970.
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[35] Fancy, S. F., Lau, K., Sabbir, M. A., & DeFord, D. (2019, March). Extended Connectivity of Zinc Pigments to Provide Enhanced Galvanic Coupling by Partial Replacement with Nano-particles. In CORROSION 2019. One Petro.
[36] A. H. Karimy and P. Holakooei, "Analytical studies leading to the identification of the pigments used in the Pi¯r-i Hamza Sabzpu¯sh Tomb in Abarqu¯, Iran: A reappraisal," Period. di Mineral., vol. 84, no. 3A, pp. 389–405, 2015.
[37] Veneranda, M. (2017). Development of novel procedures for the preservation of archaeological irons and mural paintings (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad del País Vasco-Euskal Herriko Universitates).
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[39] S. A. Yildizel, G. Kaplan, and A. U. Öztürk, "Cost optimisation of mortars containing different pigments and their freeze-thaw resistance properties," Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng., vol. 2016,no. February, 2016.
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[42] R. Ravi, S. Thirumalini, and N. Taher, "Analysis of ancient lime plasters – Reason behind longevity of the Monument Charminar, India a study," J. Build. Eng., vol. 20, no. July 2017, pp. 30–41, 2018.
[43] S. Pradeep and T. Selvaraj, "Identification of Bio-Minerals and Their Origin in Lime Mortars of Ancient Monument: Thanjavur Palace," Int. J. Archit. Herit., vol. 0, no. 0, pp. 1–11, 2019.
[44] C. Manoharan, R. Venkatachalapathy, S. Dhanapandian, and K. Deenadayalan, "FTIR and Mössbauer spectroscopy applied to study of archaeological artefacts from Maligaimedu, Tamil Nadu, India," Indian J. Pure Appl. Phys., vol. 45, no. 10, pp. 860–865, 2007.
[45] H. Rao, B. Li, Y. Yang, Q. Ma, and C. Wang, "Proteomic identification of organic additives in the mortars of ancient Chinese wooden buildings," Anal. Methods, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 143–149, 2015.
[46] S. Jayasingh and T. Selvaraj, "Influence of organic additive on carbonation of air lime mortar–changes in mechanical and mineralogical characteristics," Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng., vol. 0, no. 0, pp. 1–16, 2019.
[47] Ferreira, R. D. S., Anjos, M. A. S., Ledesma, E. F., Pereira, J. E. S., & Nóbrega, A. K. C. (2020). Evaluation of the physical-mechanical properties of cement-lime based masonry mortars produced with mixed recycled aggregates. Materiales de Construcción, 70(337), e210-e210.
[48] Anjos, M. A., Camões, A., Campos, P., Azeredo, G. A., & Ferreira, R. L. (2020). Effect of high-volume fly ash and metakaolin with and without hydrated lime on the properties of self-compacting concrete. Journal of Building Engineering, 27, 100985.
[49] Ferreira, R. L., Anjos, M. A., Nobrega, A. K., Pereira, J. E., & Ledesma, E. F. (2019). The role of powder content of the recycled aggregates of CDW in the behaviour of rendering mortars. Construction and Building Materials, 208, 601-612.
[50] K. A. Gour, R. Ramadoss, and T. Selvaraj, "Revamping the traditional air lime mortar using the natural polymer – Areca nut for restoration application," Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 164, pp. 255–264, 2018.
[51] C. Rodríguez-Navarro, “Binders in historical buildings: Traditional lime in conservation,” Semin. SEM, vol. 9, pp. 91–112, 2012.
[52] D. Miriello et al., "Characterisation and provenance of lime plasters from the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan (Mexico city)," Archaeometry, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 1119–1141, 2011.
[53] C. Rispoli et al., "Unveiling the secrets of Roman craftsmanship: mortars from Piscina Mirabilis (Campi Flegrei, Italy)," Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci., vol. 12, no. 1, 2020.
[54] S. Fernanda Carvalho, "Methodologies for characterisation and repair of mortars of ancient buildings," Hist. Constr. Int. Semin., pp. 353–362, 2001.
[2] "History of Madras High Court". Madras High Court. Archived from the original on 11 March 2014. Retrieved 25 April2014.
[3] "Madras High Court". BSNL. Archived from the original on 30 January 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
[4] Gemstones in the Era of the Taj Mahal and the Mughals Dona Mary Dirlam, Chris L. Rogers, and Robert Weldon
[5] Hoffman, D.L.; Standish, C.D.; García-Diez, M.; Pettitt, P.B.; Milton, J.A.; Zilhão, J.; Alcolea-González, J.J.; Cantalejo-Duarte, P.; Collado, H.; de Balbín, R.; et al. U–Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art. Science 2018, 359, 912–915.
[6] S. M. Bruce and G. H. Rowe, "The influence of pigments on mix designs for block paving units," in Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, vol.2, pp. 117–124, Auckland, New Zealand, 1992.
[7] L'opez, J. M. Tobes, G. Giaccio, and R. Zerbino, "Advantages of mortar-based design for coloured self-compacting concrete," Cement and Concrete Composites, vol.31, no.10, pp.754–761, 2009.
[8] M. Collepardi and A. Passuelo, "The best SCC: stable, durable and colourable," in Proceedings of the 4th International ACI/CANMET Conference on Quality of Concrete Structures and Recent Advances in Concrete Materials and Testing—FurnasCentraisEletricasSA, P. Helene, T. C. Holland, E. Pazzini, and R. Bittecourt, Eds., Civil Engineering Technological Center, Goibnia, Brasil, 2005.
[9] V. Corina desi, S. Monosi, and M. L. Ruello, "Influence of inorganic pigments' addition on the performance of coloured SCC," Construction and Building Materials, vol.30, pp.289–293, 2012.
[10] S. M. Bruce and G. H. Rowe, "The influence of pigments on mix designs for block paving units," in Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, vol.2, pp. 117–124, Auckland, New Zealand, 1992.
[11] ThirumaliniS, Ravi R, Sekar S, Nambirajan M. Knowing from the past–ingredients and technology of ancient mortar used in vadakumnathan temple, tirussur, kerala, india. Journal of Building Engineering 2015; 4:101–12.
[12] Ravi R, Selvaraj T, Sekar S. Characterization of hydraulic lime mortar containing 18 opuntia Ficus- Indica as a bio-admixture for restoration applications. International Journal of Architectural Heritage 2016;10(6):714–25.
[13] R. Malinowski, Ancient mortars and concretes. durability aspects. in: Mortars, Cements and Grouts Used in the Conservation of Historic Buildings. Symposium, Rome, 3–6 Nov. 1981. Mortiers, cements et coulis utilises dans la conservation desbatiments histories’, Symposium, Rome 3–6 Nov. 1981, Iccrom, 1982, pp. 341–350.
[14] Pilot Study - Conservation of Historic Brick Structures, Symposium, 25th – 27th October, 1991, Umweltbundesamt, Berlin, Germany, pp. 75 - 92.
[15] L. Sbordoni-Mora, Les matériaux des enduitstraditionnels, in: Mortars, Cements and Grouts Used in the Conservation of Historic Buildings/Mortiers, ciments et coulis utilisés dans la conservation des bâtimentshistoriques, ICCROM, 1981, pp.375–383.
[16] J. Lanas, J.P. Bernal, M. Bello, J.A. Galindo, Mechanical properties of natural hydraulic lime-based mortars, Cem. Concr. Res. 34 (12) (2004) 2191–2201
[17] D. Carran, J. Hughes, A. Leslie, C. Kennedy, A short history of the use of lime as a building material beyond Europe and north America, Int. J. Archit.Herit. 6 (2) (2012) 117–146.
[18] Singh M,Kumar SV, Waghmare SA, Sabale P. Aragonite–vaterite–calcite: Polymorphs
[19] Thirumalini S, Sekar S, Bhuvaneshwari B, Iyer NR. Bio-inorganic composites as repair mortar for heritage structures. Journal of Structural Engineering 2015; 42:294–304.
[20] Ioanna Papayianni, Vasiliki Pachta, Maria Stefanidou, Analysis of ancient mortars and design of compatible repair mortars: the case study of Odeion of the archaeological site of dion, Constr. Build. Mater. 40 (2013) 84–92.
[21] B. Middendorf, J.J. Hughes, K. Callebaut, G.Baronio, I.Papayiaani, Investigation methods for the characterisation of historic mortars – Part 2: chemical characterisation, RilemTC-167-COM, Mater. Struct.38 (2005) 771–780.
[22] S. Pavía, B. Toomey, Influence of the aggregate quality on the physical properties of natural feebly-hydraulic lime mortars, Mater. Struct. 41 (3) (2008) 559–569.
[23] Taylor H. Cement chemistry 1997.
[24] Eckel EC. Clements, Limes and Plasters: Their Materials, Manufacture and Properties. 1922.
[25] Toprak G. Characteristics of limes produced from marbles and limestones. Master's thesis; Izmir Institute of Technology; 2007.
[26] A.H. Munsell, Color soil charts, 1994.
[27] Munsell Color (1994). Munsell Soil Color Charts (1994). Rev. edn. Macbeth Division ofKollmorgen Instruments, New Windsor, NY.
[28] C. Rispoli et al., “The ancient pozzolanic mortars of the Thermal complex of Baia (Campi Flegrei, Italy),” J. Cult. Herit., vol. 40, pp. 143–154, 2019.
[29] Lanas J, Alvarez JI (2003) Masonry repair lime-based mortars: factors affecting the mechanical behavior. Cem Concr Res 33:1867–1876.
[30] K. Elert, C. Rodriguez-Navarro, E.S. Pardo, E. Hansen, O. Cazalla, Lime mortars for the conservation of historic buildings, Stud. Conserv. 47 (1) (2002) 62–75.
[31] A. Gamerio, P. Santos Silva, J. Faria, T. Grilo, R. Branco, A. Velosa Veiga, Physical and chemica assessment of lime–metakaolin mortars: influence of binder:ag- gregateratio, Cem. Concr. Compos. 45 (2014) 264–271.
[32] Nijland, T., Larbi, J., van Hees, R.P.J., Lubelli, B., de Rooij, M. (2007). Self-healing phenomena in concrete and masonry mortars, in Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Self Healing Materials, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, 2007, 18-20 April 2007.
[33] IS: 383, " 'Specification for coarse and fine aggreagtes from natural sources for concrete', BIS, New Delhi," 1970.
[34] Interior, U. S. D. of the B. of R. (1998). "Earth manual." Revised, First Edition. Washington, DC, 348.
[35] Fancy, S. F., Lau, K., Sabbir, M. A., & DeFord, D. (2019, March). Extended Connectivity of Zinc Pigments to Provide Enhanced Galvanic Coupling by Partial Replacement with Nano-particles. In CORROSION 2019. One Petro.
[36] A. H. Karimy and P. Holakooei, "Analytical studies leading to the identification of the pigments used in the Pi¯r-i Hamza Sabzpu¯sh Tomb in Abarqu¯, Iran: A reappraisal," Period. di Mineral., vol. 84, no. 3A, pp. 389–405, 2015.
[37] Veneranda, M. (2017). Development of novel procedures for the preservation of archaeological irons and mural paintings (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad del País Vasco-Euskal Herriko Universitates).
[38] Hofmann, C., Rabitsch, S., Malissa, A., Aceto, M., Uhlir, K., Griesser, M., ... & Fenoglio, G. (2020). The miniatures of the Vienna Genesis: Colour identification and painters’ palettes. The Vienna Genesis; Hofmann, C., Ed.; Böhlau Verlag: Vienna, Austria, 201-246.
[39] S. A. Yildizel, G. Kaplan, and A. U. Öztürk, "Cost optimisation of mortars containing different pigments and their freeze-thaw resistance properties," Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng., vol. 2016,no. February, 2016.
[40] T. S. Nayar, S. Binu, and P. Pushpangadan, "Uses of plants and plant products in traditional Indian mural paintings," Econ. Bot., vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 41–50, 1999.
[41] S. Thirumalini, R. Ravi, S. K. Sekar, and M. Nambirajan, "Knowing from the past - Ingredients and technology of ancient mortar used in Vadakumnathan temple, Tirussur, Kerala, India," J. Build. Eng., vol. 4, no. August 2017, pp. 101–112, 2015.
[42] R. Ravi, S. Thirumalini, and N. Taher, "Analysis of ancient lime plasters – Reason behind longevity of the Monument Charminar, India a study," J. Build. Eng., vol. 20, no. July 2017, pp. 30–41, 2018.
[43] S. Pradeep and T. Selvaraj, "Identification of Bio-Minerals and Their Origin in Lime Mortars of Ancient Monument: Thanjavur Palace," Int. J. Archit. Herit., vol. 0, no. 0, pp. 1–11, 2019.
[44] C. Manoharan, R. Venkatachalapathy, S. Dhanapandian, and K. Deenadayalan, "FTIR and Mössbauer spectroscopy applied to study of archaeological artefacts from Maligaimedu, Tamil Nadu, India," Indian J. Pure Appl. Phys., vol. 45, no. 10, pp. 860–865, 2007.
[45] H. Rao, B. Li, Y. Yang, Q. Ma, and C. Wang, "Proteomic identification of organic additives in the mortars of ancient Chinese wooden buildings," Anal. Methods, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 143–149, 2015.
[46] S. Jayasingh and T. Selvaraj, "Influence of organic additive on carbonation of air lime mortar–changes in mechanical and mineralogical characteristics," Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng., vol. 0, no. 0, pp. 1–16, 2019.
[47] Ferreira, R. D. S., Anjos, M. A. S., Ledesma, E. F., Pereira, J. E. S., & Nóbrega, A. K. C. (2020). Evaluation of the physical-mechanical properties of cement-lime based masonry mortars produced with mixed recycled aggregates. Materiales de Construcción, 70(337), e210-e210.
[48] Anjos, M. A., Camões, A., Campos, P., Azeredo, G. A., & Ferreira, R. L. (2020). Effect of high-volume fly ash and metakaolin with and without hydrated lime on the properties of self-compacting concrete. Journal of Building Engineering, 27, 100985.
[49] Ferreira, R. L., Anjos, M. A., Nobrega, A. K., Pereira, J. E., & Ledesma, E. F. (2019). The role of powder content of the recycled aggregates of CDW in the behaviour of rendering mortars. Construction and Building Materials, 208, 601-612.
[50] K. A. Gour, R. Ramadoss, and T. Selvaraj, "Revamping the traditional air lime mortar using the natural polymer – Areca nut for restoration application," Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 164, pp. 255–264, 2018.
[51] C. Rodríguez-Navarro, “Binders in historical buildings: Traditional lime in conservation,” Semin. SEM, vol. 9, pp. 91–112, 2012.
[52] D. Miriello et al., "Characterisation and provenance of lime plasters from the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan (Mexico city)," Archaeometry, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 1119–1141, 2011.
[53] C. Rispoli et al., "Unveiling the secrets of Roman craftsmanship: mortars from Piscina Mirabilis (Campi Flegrei, Italy)," Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci., vol. 12, no. 1, 2020.
[54] S. Fernanda Carvalho, "Methodologies for characterisation and repair of mortars of ancient buildings," Hist. Constr. Int. Semin., pp. 353–362, 2001.
Published
2026-02-05
How to Cite
1.
Ramadoss R, Mani S, Viswanathan T, Paul BorgR, Thirumalini S. CHARACTERIZATION STUDY OF THE 19th-CENTURY INDO-SARACENIC-BULBOUS DOME AT THE MADRAS HIGH COURT, TAMILNADU. MatTech [Internet]. 2026Feb.5 [cited 2026Aug.10];60(1):91–103. Available from: https://mater-tehnol.si/index.php/MatTech/article/view/1408
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